Patton, George Smith, Jr.

Patton, George Smith, Jr. Patton, George Smith, Jr., 1885â€"1945, American general, b. San Gabriel, Calif. A graduate of West Point (1909), he served in World War I and was wounded while commanding a tank brigade in France. Subsequently he served in the cavalry and the tank corps. In World War II he commanded (1942â€"43) a corps in North Africa and the 7th Army in Sicily. Despite a brilliant record, a much-publicized incident (Patton slapped a soldier suffering from battle fatigue) cost him his command and delayed until Aug., 1944, promotion to the permanent rank of major general. Patton was a particularly skilled at the rapid advance of his forces as well as the surprise flanking attack. Early in 1944 he was given command of the 3d Army, which spearheaded the spectacular sweep of U.S. forces from Normandy through Brittany and N France, relieved Bastogne in Dec., 1944 (see Battle of the Bulge ), crossed the Rhine (Mar., 1945), and raced across S Germany into Czechoslovakia. As military governor of Bavaria, he was criticized for leniency to Nazis and was removed (Oct., 1945) to take charge of the U.S. 15th Army. Patton was fatally injured in an automobile accident in Germany. See his autobiography (1947); M. Blumenson, ed., The Patton Papers (2 vol., 1972â€"74); biographies by F. Ayer, Jr. (1971), C. Peifer, Jr. (1988), and C. D'Este (1995); studies by H. Essame (1974), Z. Favago (1986), M. Blumenson (1985), and J. W. Jordan (2011). The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: U.S. History: Biographies

Causes Of The Great Depression in Canada - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 730 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/05/03 Category History Essay Level High school Topics: Great Depression Essay Did you like this example? Dependence on commodity exports The Great Depression devastated many economies. But one country arguably suffered more than any other: Canada. By the time its economy reached bottom in 1932, Canada had suffered a staggering decline of 34.8 per cent in per capita gross domestic product. No other developed nation was as hard-hit. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Causes Of The Great Depression in Canada" essay for you Create order Canada was, and still is, a country dependent on trade. In the 1920s, commodities such as wheat and lumber products, including newsprint, were particularly important. In 1930, U.S. president Herbert Hoover signed into law the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which raised duties on many imports to historically high levels. This led to retaliatory tariffs and a drastic reduction of trade around the world. It was particularly harmful to Canada, Americas largest trading partner, where export prices plummeted. The price of lumber fell 32 percent from 1929 to 1932, and cattle prices declined 63 per cent. Smoot-Hawley sent major Canadian pulp and paper companies into bankruptcy. Canadian automakers saw their exports collapse to 13,000 vehicles in 1931 from 102,000 in 1929. Manufacturing, in general, declined more than 50 per cent. Unemployment reached an average of 32 per cent in Canadian cities. In Windsor, Ont., it reached 50 per cent. In the Maritime provinces, unemployment for ordinary labourers hit 60 per cent. The human toll was greatest on the Canadian prairies, which suffered not just from the trade wars but from drought, deprivation and plagues of grasshoppers. By the time the Depression was over, one in 12 people had left the region for good, and much of the province of Saskatchewan had been reduced to a wasteland ravaged by natural disasters. In tiny Minton, most of the population of 890 depended on government relief and charity; even the towns chickens had to depend on relief feed. Yet for all the suffering, Canadians never embraced the kind of government intervention into the economy that the U.S. did. A short-lived attempt by prime minister R.B. Bennett to copy Franklin Roosevelts New Deal was ultimately struck down by the Privy Council in London, which was still Canadas ultimate Supreme Court. And despite the human devastation, Canadians never turned in large numbers to -isms communism and socialism preferring to keep their traditional political parties. True, in 1935 the people of Alberta elected the Social Credit Party, which had unusual (one might say radical) views on monetary policy. But this was an exception. Instead, Canadians muddled through the crisis with a makeshift combination of private and public charity. Private citizens in wealthier provinces recognized the plight of Saskatchewan and sent hundreds of carloads of fruit, vegetables and clothing westward. Bennett made a habit of sending money from his personal fortune to those who wrote to him pleading for help. The government did construct relief camps for unemployed men, providing some low-wage work and alleviating the threat of large numbers of jobless in the cities. The state also used force to suppress social discontent, most famously in 1935, when the unemployed organized an On-to-Ottawa Trek from the west. The movement got as far as Regina when it was met by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and local officers. The resulting clash left one police officer dead; a trekker died of wounds soon thereafter. The movement soon fizzled out.In general, Canadians handled the Great Depression with a minimum of drama. Life was tough in a cold country, and people were accustomed to dealing with adversity. The economy picked up as the Second World War set in, and the phlegmatic nature of Canadians played no small part in the recovery. As the Canadian historian James Gray observed, the Great Depression brought out more of the best than it did the worst in people offering a reminder that people, if left alone, tend to work out their own problems for themselves; that expert advice, particularly in economic matters, is most useful when it is completely ignored. The Dust Bowl Canadas disintegrating send out picture with somewhat the consequence of worldwide over limit in a few enterprises most quite Wheat and mash and paper. Another vital reason, in any case, was the financial Fighting the wretchedness years.the strategies in this war included high taxes, send out endowments, dumpingOf surpluses in outside business sectors, cash assessment, and remote trade control. The vital objectives World to restrict imports in empower local makers in the quest for national property to the detriment. The interest was damned. Monetary fighting made a larger number of issues than it comprehended.

Sexism And Racism Essay - 1301 Words

Allison Price English 3 12 August 2017 MLA Sexism and Racism within the American Judicial System There is blatant sexism and racism within the American Judicial System shown by a lack of convictions and inconsistent sentencing. Despite many small steps forward towards equality, injustice and systemic racism still find their way into the cases and verdicts we hear on the news every day. The battle for racial and gender equality is a fight that’s been fought diligently for centuries and while steps forward of all sizes are significant, recent steps backwards have left our society sure of only one thing: there is a lack of continuity regarding race and gender equality. Based on government documents, public cases, and private studies it is†¦show more content†¦Robinson brought to the courtroom her experience with UNC investigators, in which Artis was regarded â€Å"in a tone of camaraderie,†(Stancill) communicating to him that he should continue his football career and that he shouldn’t â€Å"sweat it.† These allegations directly and blatantly br ing forward the bias towards both men and male athletes in situations where the law is involved in a serious setting. Like Robinson in this specific case, women are almost always questioned about what they were wearing, how much they had been drinking, and their relationship with the person they have accused, as if these pieces of information can change the guilt status of an abuser or rapist. Why are men told not to â€Å"sweat it† when their college athletic careers, which bring in a certain profit for universities, are on the line while sometimes even video evidence isn’t enough for a woman to sway a jury of their abuser’s guilt? That answer is obvious: sexism. Somewhat more disguised are the verdicts made between black and white men serving time for the same exact crime. Most predominant are the issues surfacing in Florida, where a point system exists that is supposed to calculate sentences after heavy evaluation of the severity of the crime, the defendant’s record, and several other factors. Essentially, the goal is to create the same set of results for criminals in Orlando as are seen by criminals in Key West or Miami. A Herald Tribune article on sentencing has reported that inShow MoreRelatedSexism and Racism in â€Å"The Color Purple† Essays870 Words   |  4 Pages I feel every person should care about sexism and racism, because these two issues affect everyone. â€Å"The Color Purple† is a great film that focuses on the problems African American women faced during the early 1900s. The Color Purple provides a disturbing and realistic account into the life of Celie, a poor southern black woman with a sad and a busive past and Sophia, another poor southern black woman with a sad and abusive past. Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a personsRead MoreRacism and Sexism for Non-Whites Essay example1233 Words   |  5 PagesThere are many problems with our society as it is today. The amount of racism and sexism people whom have to deal with it face, is prevalent, and relentless with every person they encounter. Everyone gets a level of respect when they meet another person. 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Social Issues in Colonial Africa Free Essays

The title of a book may give the reader an idea of the story or it may make more sense after reading the book. The title Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad prepares the reader for something unpleasant. The title Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe also gives the reader a hint of bad things to come. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Issues in Colonial Africa or any similar topic only for you Order Now After reading both it is clear to the reader the titles refer to the terrible social issues caused by the appearance of European colonizers in Africa. The â€Å"darkness† is not just the absence of light typical in an African jungle. It is the mental and emotional dark side of the colonizers, and the dark result of their intrusion on African societies. There are many â€Å"things† that â€Å"fall apart† in Africa when the Europeans arrive. There is an immediate breakdown in communication between the two cultures. Then the domination and brutality of the Europeans causes the African society to â€Å"fall apart†. Both books show the terrible result to the Africans at the hands of the Europeans. Both authors are very effective in bringing the reader â€Å"into† the story. However, each author uses different methods and styles to illustrate the social attitudes, issues and impact arising from colonization. Joseph Conrad uses a narrator, Charlie Marlow, to tell the story of Heart of Darkness. Marlow is a sailor who tells his shipmates the story of how he had worked for a European trading company in Africa. He was employed to take a boat up-river from a company headquarters to bring back Mr. Kurtz, their best ivory trader. Marlow soon witnesses the European attitude and treatment of the Africans. He describes the horrible scene of the Europeans’ slave laborers: â€Å"They were dying slowly—it was very clear. They were not enemies, they were not criminals, they were nothing earthly now—nothing but black shadows of disease and starvation, lying confusedly in the greenish gloom† (Conrad 64). One of the men who worked at the station was a clerk who tells Marlow â€Å"When one has got to make correct entries, one comes to hate those savages—hate them to the death† (Conrad 66). Marlow learns that the behavior of the Europeans at their headquarters is just the beginning. Although Kurtz is the company’s best ivory trader, he is described as much more to Marlow: â€Å"He is a prodigy†¦an emissary of pity, of science, and progress, and devil knows what else† (Conrad 75). Marlow can begin to see the dark side of the company as the clerk relates Marlow is â€Å"of the new gang—the gang of virtue. The same people who sent him specially also recommended you† (Conrad 75). Marlow discovers a report Kurtz had written for the company describing his experience in the jungle with the Africans. Marlow states that in light of all that happened, and would happen, the beginning of the document â€Å"strikes me now as ominous. He began with the argument that we whites, from the point of development we had arrived at†¦ ‘approach them with the might of a deity’† (Conrad 111).   It is obvious that Kurtz realized that with all of the â€Å"modern† European goods and weapons he would appear to the Africans as some sort of superior being. What would be even more ominous was Kurtz’ â€Å"note at the foot of the last page†: ‘Exterminate all the brutes!’† (Conrad 111). How to cite Social Issues in Colonial Africa, Papers

Language and Culture The honorifics (speech or system) of Japanese and Korean

Introduction Use of a detailed system of honorifics has been in use by the Japanese since time in memorial. This sets out a difference between the addresser and the addressee.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Language and Culture: The honorifics (speech or system) of Japanese and Korean specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research on this topic has shown that its use is determined by different aspects contained in a speech, this include the formality of the very status and the addresser or addressee position. In Japan, honorific use is determined by the category of the addressee, that is, he/ she might be superior to the addresser, and this corresponds directly to the verb in use. Honorific use by the addressee, that is distal forms, is directed by the factors prevailing in that current situation such as the speech formality, addressee/ addresser social identity and logically oriented accounts. Although rule s and obligation dictate the use of honorifics, they cannot account for the differences in their use. There is variation in the use of honorifics regardless of the fact that the same person is addressed under similar speech situation (Dunn 1). In Korea, a different use of horrific is implemented in order to portray politeness. In the past, horrific was used to set out the differences in societal conditions between orators. Today, horrific is used to give a distinction between formal and informal speech depending on how familiar the orator and the audience are. Horrific is used to show respect among people of different social status. Examples of horrific used in Korea are; Ssi, Gun, Ghaka, Gwiha among others.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They are used either as prefixes or suffixes to the surname (Byon Para. 4). Each horrific is used at a different social setting and if w rongly used, they are seen as a form of insult. In both Korea and Japan, horrific is generally used to accord respect to the subject and portray some kind of politeness. Different verbs exist in both countries that are used at different social setting and levels. Importance of understanding culture in explaining one’s language Culture can be defined as practices that are similar to a given group but different to another one. To understand a different language, it is important to familiarize with the same people’s culture. Knowing what people in a culture do and speak is important because it helps to know what these people treasure and deem consequently, leading to prediction of their behavior. This helps one to become more acquainted with the peoples’ actions hence avoiding being caught unawares or reducing chances of mixed reactions to this behavior. This is important as it helps one adjust to the new setting. After one has come to the knowledge of how and why all these actions are taken, it is easier now to cope with the differences thus making an easier way of interacting. Culture is likened onto an iceberg. The same way an iceberg has both the visible and invisible sections, the same is evident with culture where some features are observable and others can only be perceived. Some of these aspects include; gestures, eating habits, music, religious beliefs and many others. Usually, the invisible aspects directly influence the invisible ones (understanding culture 6).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Language and Culture: The honorifics (speech or system) of Japanese and Korean specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Use of gestures can be used here to depict how important it is to understand a culture in order to better explain a different language. As a common mode of communication in the modern world, body language such as facial expression can have different mean ing in different cultural setting. Therefore, if one is not very conversant with a given culture, cases of misunderstanding may occur thus leading to conflict between these two cultures. Value differences between the Korean and Japan Value can be defined as a core component of culture as it focuses on change that directly influences behavior. Value is also vital in the business arena in that, its components influence the customer’s choice. Such components include social, conditional functional, emotional among others. From a consumer’s perspective, value can be seen as the total measure of utility of a service. It is apparent that there are differences in value depending on the cultural setting and satisfaction required by the individuals in these two countries (Kim 229). This is more evident in business ,for example, in mobile internet whereby in Korea, download services are mostly used thus achieving emotional value while in Japan, e-mail services are frequently used thus attaining a functional value. Thus the value attained in the countries (Kim 236). Differences in Korean and Japan communication system Individualism-Collectivism Culture is divided into two categories in both Japan and Korea. These two categories are individualism and collectiveness. In individualism, societal groups are perceived to be individual and respect for rights and equality is considered.Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, collectivism deals with groups whereby corporations are formed comprising of different people. Collectivism has various disadvantages such as lack of privacy and self-esteem (Deep culture para. 5). Both Koreans and Japanese can be viewed to be collectivists. Generally, countries such as Korea, Japan, China and Russia which relay on agriculture as a means of income for survival are said to be collectivism. Those that deal with nomadic such as, Europe, North America and Arab are perceived to be individualistic. Both Koreans and Japanese are not only collectivism but also, individualism in the sense that they work as groups with an aim of benefiting these very same groups. This is because of various reasons such as their lifestyle from the past whereby they depended on rice farming that required coming together hence discouraging individualism. For a long period, there have been interactions between the two countries, thus promoting similarity between them. Due to th e Japanese invasion in Korea, the Koreans were forced to think and act in a similar manner to the Japanese. Thus, aspects of collectivism such as harmony and dependency are upheld. Thoughts for the two Asians states are very similar in that they believe in getting their happiness by a way of interacting with friends. In the current world, people are moving from collectivism to individualism. This is also evident in the two countries where people have become more self centered. Egalitarianism- Hierarchism Egalitarianism is the belief of equality for all people; it imposes an equal treatment for all as the whole human race is entrusted to the same rights. On the other hand hierarchism portrays a protocol in which there those people above or below others in terms of age or their position in the government that is seniors and juniors. In Korea, egalitarianism is dominant whereby wealth and opportunities are distributed equally. There is no large gap between the rich and the poor. Egalit arianism has been known to cause tensions in area such as media and education where private sectors are discouraged. This is believed to bring harmony in the society. In both Japan and Korea, hierarchism has been promoted by Confucianism in which social protocols are vital in training juniors how to respect the seniors and how the same seniors should lead in the right manner. The idea behind this is to ensure a smooth running in the society (Hagget 3126). Confrontation-Indirectness Indirectness means diverting from the right course. Confrontation on the other hand confrontation means facing a person or situation directly without fear. There have been confrontations between the two countries in the past. Such an incident is like the one that occurred at the sea where the Koreans refused to be inspected. This led to a bitter feeling to the Japanese although the problem was solved smoothly. There is still fear that such cases are likely to occur in the future unless the Japanese will h ave good faith. The two countries have to act towards the good for both of them. Indirectness is highly embraced in Korea where the listener has to put effort in attempt to understand what the addresser is saying. Much work is to be done by the Korean reader as compared to the English readers (Eisenstein 143). Pragmatism-Formalism Though Korea and Japan has had conflicts, there has been close relationship due to the economic transactions carried out between them. Japan is known for its pragmatic goals in economics while Korea is known for its moral superiority. Japan is known for its pragmatism in the way of accepting to do business with the USA freely. Korea is not as pragmatic as Japan, though at long run, both tend to have the same achievement. In Japan use of horrific such as Keigo is common and it aims at bringing out the culture for the Japanese. Formalism is used to present the exact information to a scientific researcher because it addresses questions that are more pressing. The main addressed issues include; reference person reflectivity among others. The use of such brings out some sense of politeness and respect (Wetzel 4). Rationalism-Emotionalism Rationalism calls for actions out of reason and knowledge rather than religious or emotional reactions while emotionalism focus on reactions based on emotions. Cases of emotionalism are evident in both Japan and Korea. For example; Japan was not pleased with the discontinued negotiation over fisheries in 1969. Another instance of emotionalism is seen when Korea uses the word king instead of emperor in an attempt to humiliate Japanese. The issue of abducting Korean girls for slavery and sexual satisfaction by the Japanese also resulted into long debates in the USA House of Representatives with an aim of providing solution to the women mistreatment (Togo and Hasegwa, 52). Nationalism was more evident in Korea in which movements were formed in order to protect Koreans culture and ethnicity against the outsid ers. These movements included independent ones ant the partitioning of Korea into two in order to protect the country from the colonialist thus safeguarding their culture. Conversational constraints in conflict situations Both Koreans and Japanese are perceived to be collectivistic in their way of communicating mode. During conversation, conflicts are bound to occur and for both countries, different approaches are used to solve such conflicts and constraints such as concern for clarity, imposition minimization, and hurtful feelings by the audience reduction and hearer’s negative perceptions avoidance. Koreans seem to be more collectivism as compared to Japanese. While Japanese are more concerned with passage of information clearly and explicitly, Koreans focus more on avoiding negative feelings or hurting the hearer’s feelings. Differences in the perceptions of interaction goals between Koreans and Japanese How issues are perceived in both countries differ. This is att ributed to the cultural difference in the countries. The way words are understood in both countries is all different, for example; in Korea corruption is not a vice as in other countries like the USA. Another case can be seen in negotiation processes. To the Japanese, Harmony is a priority and in many cases they would not want to involve in dialogue that is likely to cause chaos. Honorifics and Politeness In Japan, use of Horrific is common whereby suffixes are used at the end of names to denote the relationship between the addressee and the addresser. Japanese have diverse levels of speech, honorifics, different words and polite verbs. The use of the above mentioned ideas depends on the situation in which the word is used; this means a word can have many meanings depending on the situation. The way to address a close friend or a family member is all different from the way of addressing an employer. The various speech level used include, keigo, sonkeigo and kenjougo. Keigo is the mo st used level especially with the foreigners because it is simple. The latter two are used in formal situations more so when seniors are addressing juniors. Examples of honorifics include; san which is equivalent to Mr., Ms or Mrs. in English, it is used for both male and female. Cha is another horrific used in informal situation to denote affection. It is commonly used by women and girls. In rare occasions, men can use it to imply some sense of affection to a young lady.It can also be used to refer to cute things or pets. Sama is a more polite one and it can be used to show respect to a senior. To show politeness in Japan, there are different ways of using I and you. It is perceived more polite to use ones title or name than to use you. Examples of I are; Wakatashi, Watashi and boku. Those of you are; Anata, Kimi and Anta (Honorifics and Politeness Levels para. 2). Just as in Japan, Koreans also make use of different honorifics, speech levels and verbs in order to set out a clear r elationship between the speakers and d the audience. All these are done to show respect and create a good relationship among different categories of people. Conclusion In both Korea and Japan, use of horrific is embraced in order to ensure harmony in the society. Their cultural practices are directly proportional to their language; therefore, it is important to understand culture in order to have a comprehension of the language. There are different ways of communicating in both Korea and Japan depending on the values to be achieved. Constraints in communication in both countries are also evident and these are different in the two countries. It is important to familiarize with a culture in order to be at pace with their way of doing things and communication modes. Works Cited Byon, Andrew, S. The role of linguistic indirectness and honorifics in achieving linguistic politeness in Korean requests. Deep culture: Individualism verses collectivism. Web. Dunn, Cynthia, D. Japanese honorif ic use as indexical of the speaker’s situational stance: Towards a new model. University of Northern Lowa. Eisenstein, Miriam, R. The Dynamic interlanguage: empirical studies in second language variation. Toronto: Springer, 1989. Web. Hagget, Peter. Encyclopedia of world Geography: Japan/ Korea. New York: Marshall Cavendish.  Honorifics and Politeness Levels. Web. Kim. Lee, Y. et al. A cross-cultural study on the value structure of mobile internet usage: comparison between Korea and Japan. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research, VOL. 3, NO. 4. Web. Togo, Kazuhiko. Hasegawa, Tyuyoshi. East Asia’s haunted present: historical memories and the resurgence of nationalism PSI reports. ABC-CLIO.2008.  Understanding culture. Web. Wetzel, Patricia, J. Keigo in modern Japan: polite language from Meiji to the present. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. 2004. This research paper on Language and Culture: The honorifics (speech or system) of Japanese and Korean was written and submitted by user Ph1ll1p to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Workplace Collaboration

Advantages and Disadvantages of Workplace Collaboration Free Online Research Papers The culture of collaboration is strong in today’s workplace. Collaboration is used in almost every industry in a multitude of situations. Pared down to its bare essentials, collaboration can be defined as â€Å"a dynamic process resulting from developmental group stages and as an outcome, producing a synthesis of different perspectives (Gardner, 2005, p. 2). The success or failure of collaboration depends on the characteristics of the stakeholders that form the group and the dynamics of the group. Often, no formal training regarding collaboration is provided in the workplace. Hence, collaboration efforts fail, leading to a mixed bag of opinions regarding whether the advantages outweigh the disadvantages or not. This paper shall explore both sides of the issue. The Phases of Collaboration Collaboration addresses complex problems when it is not more efficient to have an individual take responsibility for resolving the issue. At best, collaboration lends itself to situations where the solution appears to be â€Å"imperfect, changing or divergent (Gardner, 2005, p. 10). Collaboration has three phases; problem setting, direction setting, and structuring (Gardner, 2005). During the problem setting phase, stakeholders establish their credentials and expertise. Next, during the direction setting phase, stakeholders agree on the problem and what actions and resources are needed to address it. Lastly, in the structuring phase, stakeholders implement what was agreed upon in the previous stage and allocate roles, responsibilities and resources (Gardner, 2005). For collaboration to be successful, the stakeholders must all have a similar mental model of what the process entails and what outcomes are expected. Stakeholders’ Characteristics Influence Collaboration Communication dimensions impact collaboration. Thus, the delivery of content and how the sender perceives the relationship with the other party is important (Gardner, 2009). Another key element is the value individuals attribute to the communication process and how much time they contribute in its pursuit. Furthermore, the environment for communication can also vary, according to the tastes of the stakeholders. Face-to-face sessions, socializing, sophisticated software and instant messaging all foster collaboration and meaningful relationships. According to Pressman (2009), â€Å"the most effective teams are composed of highly competent individuals with at least a modicum of interpersonal skills and a balanced mix of personalities and passions† ( ¶ 18). Davies, (2009) suggests that in order to get a team that complements each other, stakeholders should be recruited on the basis of whether they are thought-oriented, people-oriented or action-oriented. Their specialist knowledge, qualifications and experience should also be considered. Types of Collaboration Types of collaboration can vary according to the make-up of the members and the goals of the collaboration efforts. The most common types of team collaboration are cross-functional, specialized, and partnership. In cross-functional collaboration, members of the team have diverse functions within an organization, and a common goal. In specialized collaboration, team members often have the same skill set and share similar experiences. Additionally, collaboration can exist as a partnership, where various departments come together to discuss the points where they intersect in the organization. The key elements to identifying team collaboration are: â€Å"members of the group are known, there are clear task interdependencies, expected reciprocity, and explicit time-lines and goals† (Callahan, Schenk, White, 2008,  ¶ 13). Two more categories of collaboration also exist: community and network. There is a shared area of interest in community collaboration, but the goal is learning rather than being task based. On the other hand, network collaboration starts with individual self-interest and accrues to the network as individuals add their own personal knowledge or opinions. However, there are no roles or time-lines defined (Callahan, Schenk, White, 2008). Advantages of Workplace Collaboration This section will examine what the team found as being the most important advantages of workplace collaboration. Team B specifically looked at team collaboration and the sub-categories. The common factor among these advantages appears to be the level of cooperation and the rapport established between team members. Trust (once established) In collaborative environments, cooperation is the mechanism by which trust is increased (Gardner, 2005). Trust is a substantial advantage when a group is able to use this to their benefit. Confidence can be developed and strengthened through communication between stakeholders, honesty, accepting and giving advice, completing tasks, and meeting deadlines. Getting tasks successfully completed can be difficult. However, completion of tasks is critical to developing trust. Rushing through a task and declaring that the task is finished, then finding out mistakes were made, or things were missed, will lead to a loss of trust. On the other hand, knowing that time was taken to ensure a task is complete, is a good way of helping develop trust. Project Management Collaboration, like teamwork, provides structure and balance in regard to projects. Collaboration provides and fosters the belief, â€Å"For the greater good,† instead of the belief, â€Å"What’s in it for me.† This fostered belief allows for cross-functional teams to perform at a high level of performance, time management, fiscal responsibility and critical checks and balances (Archer, 2004). Time Management The management of time is a key component in any work relationship and limited time is an obvious obstacle to a successful collaboration effort which must be managed accordingly. Collaborative teams realize that collaboration is a journey. As such, team members often build enough time into the project to accommodate changes, testing and meetings (Gardner, 2005). Communication Having a sense of belonging is also important to collaboration. People have a natural need to belong and seek to feel like they are part of something. Collaboration fills that need. Collaboration brings out the best in people because it drives better working relationships, which forges camaraderie between its members. For example, when teams build strong communication methodologies, the possibilities are endless (Marshall, 1995). Through communicating with each other, a wealth of information is conveyed. Individuals within teams learn from each other. Often, by listening and observing the behavior of others within the team, members learn skill sets that cannot be learned in any other way. Social Relationships The social makeup of any team is interestingly dynamic. It allows members to gain a better perspective from experiences of other team members, which in turn makes the individual team members stronger. The importance of optimizing individual and team member strengths relies on the team having different cultures, diversity in work experiences, and a mix of genders represented accordingly. Higher Productivity According to Computerworld, collaboration, if channeled correctly, provides increased productivity, which can lead to vast benefits for organizations (Teaming Up for Work, 2008). When productivity is increased, it becomes a considerable advantage in getting projects completed. Through collaboration, productivity is improved as tasks become more manageable. Work is accomplished more rapidly, a higher percentage of mistakes are caught, resources are abundant, expenses are shared, and someone is able to step in where another leaves off or is unable to help. Problem Solving Projects can seem overbearing. The difficulty is organizing them. Being able to split the responsibility makes the project more manageable. In theory, everyone gets to work on a small task contributing to the desired result. Being able to work on a small task allows more involvement on that specific task. The advantage of added contribution to the tasks generates a higher quality result. Splitting tasks is also very effective when attempting to resolve complex problems. Drexler and Forrester (1998) believe that collaborative teamwork is what it takes to meet the ever- changing market conditions of today. In the case of software developers, programs are usually broken down into small segments assigned to different teams working in parallel, which results in faster deployment. Collaboration also combines the expertise of the groups to produce a consensus of much better thought decisions. A group of investors will usually outperform a single expert; the bad opinions in the crowd tend to cancel out, so that the average is wise, an advantage known as the wisdom of the crowds (Freedman, 2006, p. 62). Creativity and Innovation Innovation and creativity can be advantages of collaboration, but they need to be broken down into their elements – inspiration, invention and implementation. Without all three elements, there is no advantage. Inspiration comes from a dynamic environment, invention from chaos, and implementation from structure and planning. Cross-functional teams seem to be more innovative than other types of teams because these teams provide those elements (Spencer, 2008). Disadvantages of Workplace Collaboration After researching, Team B found out that the number of disadvantages associated with collaboration equals the advantages. This section will explain what the team found to be the most critical disadvantages. Extensive Time and Effort Required to Manage Collaboration Effectively Every project is going to be time consuming. The difficulty is finding the time to complete the project, and at the same time, work on others. Supposedly, working as a team can greatly reduce solution timelines. When less time is spent on a project, it allows for more time to be allocated towards other initiatives and company strategies. The more objectives a company can get accomplished, the more productive that company will be. Collaboration in the workplace is not always as good as it sounds. One of the biggest problems with working in groups is time management. A collaborative process tends to be lengthier than other methods because more people are involved. Time is of the essence when it comes to getting projects done and turned in by the deadline. It takes effort and coordination to find time to work together (Johnson, 2006). When a group of individuals in the workplace is thrown together to get a task done, most of the time the project is not only theirs. The issue then arises of when can the group meet during the workday and have a sit-down to decide how to delegate the pieces of project. If everyone doesn’t agree on an outcome, then the team becomes deadlocked and that takes time to resolve. It also takes more time agreeing on a schedule to get the work accomplished in a timely manner. If the team leader is too busy resolving conflicts and trying to make all the decisions that no one else can, then he or she does not have the time to participate effectively and collaborate (Johnson, 2006). Unequal Workload and Wallflowers: Non-Contributors A lack of participation from non-contributors can cause group members to experience an increased workload and feelings of anger, resentment and alienation. When working alone, it is agonizingly obvious when someone is not generating any help. On the other hand, a wallflower personality can be physically present, observing the actions of others, but contributing nothing, while remaining part of the group (Davies, 2009; Freedman, 2006). Groupthink Members in a poorly managed team often resort to suppressing their own opinions to avoid conflicts with others. The result is a buy-in to a consensus. A good example of this is Enron, where fatally wrong decisions were made based on a false consensus of ideas. A groupthink approach defeats the wisest members, who lose confidence in their reasoning when facing a majority of opposing opinions (Freedman, 2006). Technology Can Make Collaboration Worse Technological advancements can make collaboration worse; members become more hesitant to offer their opinions due to fear of confronting the larger audience made possible by instant messaging, web-conferencing and other virtual collaboration tools. In addition, technology makes collaboration easier for every team member to bring more ideas to the discussions. Eventually, foolish ideas are allowed to gain significance when it becomes difficult to filter the pool of ideas (Freedman, 2006). Social Loafing and Romance of the Teams Freedman (2006) argues that effectiveness of collaborative teams could simply be a misconception. The structure of most teams makes members lazy, exerting little effort and not achieving their full potential. This aspect is what encourages people to love teamwork. The romance of teams is what Natalie Allen, a psychologist at the University of Western Ontario, calls it. Freedman cited Kip Williams, a Purdue psychology researcher, who believes that the notion that individuals outthink and outdecide groups is so well established among experts that they dont bother to study it anymore (p. 62). This is exemplified when conducting brainstorming sessions. It is always assumed that group brainstorming brings more bright ideas than individual brainstormers. The fact is that individuals are able to do more thinking when left alone, whereas the group members waste their time listening to others. When compared to the loud interaction of the team, individuals appear less productive due to their s ilent brainstorming (Freedman, 2006). Mistrust Collaboration at work can cause conflicts, and if these conflicts are allowed to continue then they can become a hindrance to an otherwise productive team. Knowledge protection can be one cause of conflict when working in a team environment. Team members may fear others in the group and feel the need to protect their knowledge and interests. If they protect their interests then they won’t keep an open mind or speak what is on their mind when in discussion. This kind of protection can then lead to further issues like miscommunication and mistrust (Littleson, 2008). Loss of Individuality The loss of individuality can be summed up as the loss of power or personal direction in the workplace. Responsibility for tasks gives one power, and once responsibility is lost, power is lost (Johnson, 2006). Loss of individualism can cause one to lose focus and direction. Team members must be sure to keep and maintain that balance between individualism and integration (Gardner, 2006). Problems Can Take Longer to Resolve Collaborative teams can sometimes fall into situations where they are not able to reach a solution to a given problem. This usually happens when groups are assigned to make decisions. As cited by Freedman (2006), Bernard Nijstad, a psychologist at the University of Amsterdam, stated, About half of all groups dont reach any conclusion at all (p. 62). In addition, complexity and interdependence of certain teams might elongate the resolution times when groups wait for each other to build the final product. Conflict of Divided Loyalties Divided loyalties can occur when stakeholders identify more with their department than with the organization. When the organization and the department have differing goals, then collaboration efforts are jeopardized, and conflicts arise. Instead of working for the good of the company, stakeholders work against each other, creating a weakness in the organization (Archer, 2004). However, the impact of divided loyalties can be alleviated if it is understood that this situation exists. Partnering, as a form of collaboration, recognizes that different sub-groups exist and the need to work with these differences rather than remove them (Archer, 2004). In this form of collaboration, areas of interception or commonality are examined and improved by the group. Conflicting Cultural Elements and Values in a Diverse Group Charles Darwin once said, â€Å"In the long history of humankind, those who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively have prevailed† (Pressman, 2009,  ¶ 19). By not learning to compromise with others, one runs the risk of losing services, innovation, attitude, commitment and ultimately the designated goal. Codependency Codependency is widespread, and it appears with ever increasing frequency in the workplace these days. Often, collaboration can encourage codependency rather than interdependency (Johnson, 2006). A codependent person is one whom, knowingly or involuntarily, reinforces dependency on other persons or groups. A codependent individual may not think that he or she has to work as hard, since he or she has a group to help him or her out. In the end, he or she receives undeserved credit, or blame, although he or she did not participate in or contribute to the outcome. The problem with codependency is that it results in an entanglement with another person or persons, rather than a relationship where both parties are equal. Feelings of subordination can cause this, and the stakeholder represses their own thoughts in a group setting, saying nothing. At this point, everyone needs to pitch in a little extra to save the group from falling apart. Each individual member of the group needs to pick up the slack, develop skills in different areas, increase workload and be prepared to rescue the codependent from his or her own shortcomings. In the writer’s opinion, repeated group salvaging attempts will only allow the deprived individual to continue this destructive course and become even more dependent on the unhealthy care taking from others (Johnson, 2006). Conclusion Ultimately, the success or failure of any group resides with all the team members. All the stakeholders will need to work as a cohesive unit in order for the team dynamics to be successful. If the team can establish trust, resolve conflicts, foster creativity and innovation, and maintain the integrity of the team the probability of success increases. Just as there are positives to collaboration, there is an equal amount of negative aspects such as unevenly distributed workloads, time restraints, information overload, and mistrust. If the team allows negative aspects to affect the team it will reduce the chance of success significantly. As Charles Darwin once said, â€Å"In the long history of humankind, those who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively have prevailed† (Pressman, 2009,  ¶ 19). References Archer, D. (2004, October). The Myths of teamworking. Engineering Management, 14(5), 16-18. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Callahan, S., Schenk, M., White, N. (2008, April). Building a Collaborative Workplace. Anecdote.com. Retrieved June 12, 2009, from anecdote.com.au/whitepapers.php?wpid+15 Davies, N. (2009, March 25). Build an Effective Team. Nursing Standard, 23(29), 72-72. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Drexler, A., Forrester, R. (1998, January). Teamworknot necessarily the answer. HRMagazine, 43(1), 55. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from Business Source Complete database. Freedman, D. (2006, September). Collaboration is the hottest buzzword in business today. Too bad it doesnt work. Inc, 28(9), 61-62. Retrieved June 9, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Gardner, D. (2005, January). Ten lessons in collaboration. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 10(1), 61-74. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Johnson, D. (2006, January). A few words about collaboration. Library Media Connection, 24(4), 98-98. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from Business Source Alumni Edition database. Littleson, R. (2008, February). Collaborative decision making requires a collaboration of capabilities, Kinaxis Electronic Business. Retrieved June 15, 2009, 2008, from edn.com/index.asp?layout=articlearticleid=CA6528683 Marshall, E. (1995, June). The collaborative workplace. Management Review, 84(6), 13. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from MasterFILE Premier Database. Pressman, A. (2009, April). Its a very good time to develop your firms collaboration skills. Architectural Record, 197(4), 47-47. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Spencer, R. (2008, January). Group Genius: The Creative Power of Collaboration. Research Technology Management, 51(1), 62-63. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from Business Source Complete database. Teaming Up for Work. (2008, February). Computerworld, 42(8), S4. Retrieved June 6, 2009, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 1435697981). Research Papers on Advantages and Disadvantages of Workplace CollaborationOpen Architechture a white paperThe Project Managment Office SystemResearch Process Part OneIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThree Concepts of PsychodynamicInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males

More Answers to Questions About Punctuation

More Answers to Questions About Punctuation More Answers to Questions About Punctuation More Answers to Questions About Punctuation By Mark Nichol Here are my responses to three recent queries from readers about various punctuation matters. 1. In the sentence â€Å"I went to school, although I was feeling ill,† is the comma correct, or is it optional where the meaning is clear? Most subordinating conjunctions require no preceding comma (for example, consider sentences in which before, if, or when bridge two independent clauses), but those that come before a contrasting statement, such as one that begins with although and whereas, should be preceded by one. 2. In the following sentence, is the use of single inverted commas correct, or incorrect?: â€Å"I thought to myself, ‘It’s a good thing that we are going down the stairs, as I would never be able to climb them back.’† For internal thoughts, format as you have done, or italicize thoughts instead of enclosing them in inverted commas (or quotation marks, as they’re usually called in the United States). Here’s a post I wrote on the topic. 3. Today I wrote the sentence â€Å"The assessment is no longer required for technologists; only managers and higher.† I wasn’t sure which punctuation to use where the semicolon is. A comma wouldn’t provide a long enough pause to get my point across. I toyed with the idea of a colon, but it didn’t seem quite right. I went with a semicolon because â€Å"only managers and higher† seemed like a truncated independent clause. Seeing it now (after clicking Send), I think it maybe should have been a dash. What do you think? I think that a comma is sufficient in this sentence, but, yes, for more emphasis, I would use an em dash (and follow it with â€Å"only for managers and higher†). A colon isn’t appropriate, because what follows is a comparison of sorts, not an expansion or definition. To merit a semicolon, what follows would have to be explicitly constructed as an independent clause, not just an abbreviated version of one. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:4 Types of Gerunds and Gerund Phrases3 Cases of Complicated HyphenationThe Difference Between e.g. and i.e.?